Publications

@article{Zhang2023b,

title = {Remote neurocognitive interventions for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder - Opportunities and challenges},

author = {Da-Wei Zhang, Stuart J. Johnstone, Bruno Sauce, Martijn Arns, Li Sun, Han Jiang},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2023.110802},

year  = {2023},

date = {2023-05-29},

journal = {Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Matzel2023,

title = {A multi-faceted role of dual-state dopamine signaling in working memory, attentional control, and intelligence},

author = {Louis D. Matzel and Bruno Sauce},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/fnbeh-17-1060786.pdf},

doi = {10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1060786},

year  = {2023},

date = {2023-02-16},

urldate = {2023-02-16},

journal = {Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience},

volume = {17},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zhang2023,

title = {Efficiency and capacity mechanisms can coexist in cognitive training},

author = {Da-wei Zhang and Bruno Sauce},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Zhang-and-Sauce-2023-Efficiency-and-capacity-mechanisms-can-coexist-in-cognitive-training.pdf},

doi = {10.1038/s44159-022-00146-9},

year  = {2023},

date = {2023-01-12},

urldate = {2023-01-12},

journal = {Nature Reviews Psychology},

volume = {2},

issue = {127},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{pmid36522329,

title = {Schooling substantially improves intelligence, but neither lessens nor widens the impacts of socioeconomics and genetics},

author = {Nicholas Judd and Bruno Sauce and Torkel Klingberg},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/s41539-022-00148-5.pdf},

doi = {10.1038/s41539-022-00148-5},

issn = {2056-7936},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-12-01},

urldate = {2022-12-01},

journal = {NPJ Sci Learn},

volume = {7},

number = {1},

pages = {33},

abstract = {Schooling, socioeconomic status (SES), and genetics all impact intelligence. However, it is unclear to what extent their contributions are unique and if they interact. Here we used a multi-trait polygenic score for cognition (cogPGS) with a quasi-experimental regression discontinuity design to isolate how months of schooling relate to intelligence in 6567 children (aged 9-11). We found large, independent effects of schooling (β ~ 0.15), cogPGS (β ~ 0.10), and SES (β ~ 0.20) on working memory, crystallized (cIQ), and fluid intelligence (fIQ). Notably, two years of schooling had a larger effect on intelligence than the lifetime consequences, since birth, of SES or cogPGS-based inequalities. However, schooling showed no interaction with cogPGS or SES for the three intelligence domains tested. While schooling had strong main effects on intelligence, it did not lessen, nor widen the impact of these preexisting SES or genetic factors.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2022,

title = {The impact of digital media on children’s intelligence while controlling for genetic differences in cognition and socioeconomic background},

author = {Bruno Sauce, Magnus Liebherr, Nicholas Judd, Torkel Klingberg},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/s41598-022-11341-2.pdf},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11341-2},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-05-11},

urldate = {2022-05-11},

journal = {Scientific Reports},

volume = {12},

issue = {1},

abstract = {Digital media defines modern childhood, but its cognitive effects are unclear and hotly debated. We believe that studies with genetic data could clarify causal claims and correct for the typically unaccounted role of genetic predispositions. Here, we estimated the impact of different types of screen time (watching, socializing, or gaming) on children’s intelligence while controlling for the confounding effects of genetic differences in cognition and socioeconomic status. We analyzed 9855 children from the USA who were part of the ABCD dataset with measures of intelligence at baseline (ages 9–10) and after two years. At baseline, time watching (r = − 0.12) and socializing (r = − 0.10) were negatively correlated with intelligence, while gaming did not correlate. After two years, gaming positively impacted intelligence (standardized β =  + 0.17), but socializing had no effect. This is consistent with cognitive benefits documented in experimental studies on video gaming. Unexpectedly, watching videos also benefited intelligence (standardized β =  + 0.12), contrary to prior research on the effect of watching TV. Although, in a posthoc analysis, this was not significant if parental education (instead of SES) was controlled for. Broadly, our results are in line with research on the malleability of cognitive abilities from environmental factors, such as cognitive training and the Flynn effect.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Klingberg2021b,

title = {Assessing the impact of environmental factors on the adolescent brain: the importance of regional analyses and genetic controls},

author = {Torkel Klingberg and Nicholas Judd and Bruno Sauce},

editor = {Mario Maj},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/World-Psychiatry-2022-Klingberg-Assessing-the-impact-of-environmental-factors-on-the-adolescent-brain-the-importance.pdf

},

doi = {10.1002/wps.20934},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-11},

urldate = {2022-01-11},

journal = {World Psychiatry},

volume = {21},

number = {1},

pages = {146-147},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2021,

title = {Change by challenge: A common genetic basis behind childhood cognitive development and cognitive training},

author = {Bruno Sauce, John Wiedenhoeft, Nicholas Judd, Torkel Klingberg},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Sauce-et-al.-2021-Change-by-challenge-A-common-genetic-basis-behind-childhood-cognitive-development-and-cognitive-training.pdf},

doi = {10.1038/s41539-021-00096-6},

issn = {2056-7936},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-06-02},

journal = {Nature Science of Learning},

volume = {6},

pages = {16},

abstract = {The interplay of genetic and environmental factors behind cognitive development has preoccupied multiple fields of science and sparked heated debates over the decades. Here we tested the hypothesis that developmental genes rely heavily on cognitive challenges—as opposed to natural maturation. Starting with a polygenic score (cogPGS) that previously explained variation in cognitive performance in adults, we estimated its effect in 344 children and adolescents (mean age of 12 years old, ranging from 6 to 25) who showed changes in working memory (WM) in two distinct samples: (1) a developmental sample showing significant WM gains after 2 years of typical, age-related development, and (2) a training sample showing significant, experimentally-induced WM gains after 25 days of an intense WM training. We found that the same genetic factor, cogPGS, significantly explained the amount of WM gain in both samples. And there was no interaction of cogPGS with sample, suggesting that those genetic factors are neutral to whether the WM gains came from development or training. These results represent evidence that cognitive challenges are a central piece in the gene-environment interplay during cognitive development. We believe our study sheds new light on previous findings of interindividual differences in education (rich-get-richer and compensation effects), brain plasticity in children, and the heritability increase of intelligence across the lifespan.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

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}

@article{Crawford2020,

title = {Intelligence demands flexibility: Individual differences in attentional disengagement strongly predict the general cognitive ability of mice},

author = {Dylan W Crawford and Sophie Bendrath and Margarita D Manzano and Aasav Mehta and Himali M Patel and Monica C Piela and Bruno Sauce and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Crawford-et-al.-2020-Intelligence-demands-flexibility-Individual-differences-in-attentional-disengagement-strongly-predict-the-gener.pdf},

doi = {10.1016/j.lmot.2020.101657},

issn = {00239690},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-08-01},

journal = {Learning and Motivation},

volume = {71},

number = {March},

pages = {101657},

publisher = {Elsevier},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Judd2020,

title = {Cognitive and brain development is independently influenced by socioeconomic status and polygenic scores for educational attainment},

author = {Nicholas Judd and Bruno Sauce and John Wiedenhoeft and Jeshua Tromp and Bader Chaarani and Alexander Schliep and Betteke van Noort and Jani Penttilä and Yvonne Grimmer and Corinna Insensee and Andreas Becker and Tobias Banaschewski and Arun L W Bokde and Erin Burke Quinlan and Sylvane Desrivi{è}res and Herta Flor and Antoine Grigis and Penny Gowland and Andreas Heinz and Bernd Ittermann and Jean-Luc Martinot and Marie-Laure {Paill{è}re Martinot} and Eric Artiges and Frauke Nees and Dimitri {Papadopoulos Orfanos} and Tomáš Paus and Luise Poustka and Sarah Hohmann and Sabina Millenet and Juliane H Fröhner and Michael N Smolka and Henrik Walter and Robert Whelan and Gunter Schumann and Hugh Garavan and Torkel Klingberg},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Judd-et-al.-2020-Cognitive-and-brain-development-is-independently-influenced-by-socioeconomic-status-and-polygenic-scores-for-educat.pdf},

doi = {10.1073/pnas.2001228117},

issn = {0027-8424},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-06-01},

journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},

volume = {117},

number = {22},

pages = {12411--12418},

abstract = {Genetic factors and socioeconomic status (SES) inequalities play a large role in educational attainment, and both have been associated with variations in brain structure and cognition. However, genetics and SES are correlated, and no prior study has assessed their neural associations independently. Here we used a polygenic score for educational attainment (EduYears-PGS), as well as SES, in a longitudinal study of 551 adolescents to tease apart genetic and environmental associations with brain development and cognition. Subjects received a structural MRI scan at ages 14 and 19. At both time points, they performed three working memory (WM) tasks. SES and EduYears-PGS were correlated ( r = 0.27) and had both common and independent associations with brain structure and cognition. Specifically, lower SES was related to less total cortical surface area and lower WM. EduYears-PGS was also related to total cortical surface area, but in addition had a regional association with surface area in the right parietal lobe, a region related to nonverbal cognitive functions, including mathematics, spatial cognition, and WM. SES, but not EduYears-PGS, was related to a change in total cortical surface area from age 14 to 19. This study demonstrates a regional association of EduYears-PGS and the independent prediction of SES with cognitive function and brain development. It suggests that the SES inequalities, in particular parental education, are related to global aspects of cortical development, and exert a persistent influence on brain development during adolescence.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Matzel2020,

title = {Déjà vu All Over Again: A Unitary Biological Mechanism for Intelligence Is (Probably) Untenable},

author = {Louis D Matzel and Dylan W Crawford and Bruno Sauce},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Matzel-Crawford-Sauce-2020-Déjà-vu-All-Over-Again-A-Unitary-Biological-Mechanism-for-Intelligence-Is-Probably-Untenable.pdf},

doi = {10.3390/jintelligence8020024},

issn = {2079-3200},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-06-01},

journal = {Journal of Intelligence},

volume = {8},

number = {2},

pages = {24},

abstract = {Nearly a century ago, Spearman proposed that “specific factors can be regarded as the ‘nuts and bolts' of cognitive performancełdots, while the general factor is the mental energy available to power the specific engines”. Geary (2018; 2019) takes Spearman's analogy of “mental energy” quite literally and doubles-down on the notion by proposing that a unitary energy source, the mitochondria, explains variations in both cognitive function and health-related outcomes. This idea is reminiscent of many earlier attempts to describe a low-level biological determinant of general intelligence. While Geary does an admirable job developing an innovative theory with specific and testable predictions, this new theory suffers many of the shortcomings of previous attempts at similar goals. We argue that Geary's theory is generally implausible, and does not map well onto known psychological and genetic properties of intelligence or its relationship to health and fitness. While Geary's theory serves as an elegant model of “what could be”, it is less successful as a description of “what is”.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Darki2019,

title = {Inter-Individual Differences in Striatal Connectivity Is Related to Executive Function Through Fronto-Parietal Connectivity},

author = {Fahimeh Darki and Bruno Sauce and Torkel Klingberg},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Darki-Sauce-Klingberg-2019-Inter-Individual-Differences-in-Striatal-Connectivity-Is-Related-to-Executive-Function-Through-Fronto-P.pdf},

doi = {10.1093/cercor/bhz117},

issn = {1047-3211},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-08-01},

journal = {Cerebral Cortex},

pages = {1--10},

abstract = {The striatum has long been associated with cognitive functions, but the mechanisms behind this are still unclear. Here we tested a new hypothesis that the striatum contributes to executive function (EF) by strengthening cortico-cortical connections. Striatal connectivity was evaluated by measuring the resting-state functional connectivity between ventral and dorsal striatum in 570 individuals, aged 3–20 years. Using structural equation modeling, we found that inter-individual differences in striatal connectivity had an indirect effect (via fronto-parietal functional connectivity) and a direct effect on a compound EF measure of working memory, inhibition, and set-shifting/flexibility. The effect of fronto-parietal connectivity on cognition did not depend on age: the influence was as strong in older as younger children. In contrast, striatal connectivity was closely related to changes in cognitive ability during childhood development, suggesting a specific role of the striatum in cognitive plasticity. These results support a new principle for striatal functioning, according to which striatum promotes cognitive development by strengthening of cortico-cortical connectivity.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Matzel2019,

title = {Mouse twins separated when young: A history of exploration doubles the heritability of boldness and differentially affects the heritability of measures of learning},

author = {Louis D Matzel and Sophie Bendrath and Margalit Herzfeld and Dylan W Crawford and Bruno Sauce},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Matzel-et-al.-2019-Mouse-twins-separated-when-young-A-history-of-exploration-doubles-the-heritability-of-boldness-and-differentially.pdf},

doi = {10.1016/j.intell.2019.01.005},

issn = {01602896},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-05-01},

journal = {Intelligence},

volume = {74},

pages = {34--42},

publisher = {Elsevier},

abstract = {Most quantifiable traits exhibit some degree of heritability. The heritability of physical traits is often high, but the heritability of some personality traits and intelligence can also be highly heritable. Importantly, estimates of heritability can change dramatically depending on such variables as the age or the environmental history of the sample from which the estimate is obtained. Interpretation of these changing estimates is complicated in studies of humans, where (based on correlational observations) environmental variables are hard to directly control or specify. Using laboratory mice, here we could control specific environmental variables. We assessed 58 groups of four full sibling male CD-1 genetically heterogeneous mice (n = 232). Using a standard full-sibling analysis, physical characteristics (body weight and brain weight) were highly heritable (h of body weight = 0.66 on a 0–1 scale), while behaviors indicative of a personality trait (exploration/boldness) and learning abilities (in a passive avoidance and egocentric maze task) were weakly-to-moderately heritable. Half of the siblings from each set of four were housed in an “enriched” environment, which provided extensive and varied opportunities for exploration. This enrichment treatment promoted improvements in learning and a shift toward a more bold personality type. Relative to animals in control (“impoverished” environments), the history of enrichment had significant impact on estimates of heritability. In particular, the heritability of behaviors related to the personality trait (exploration/boldness) more than doubled, and a similar increase was observed for learning (in the passive avoidance task). Physical traits (brain and body weight), however, were insensitive to environmental history (where in both environments, animals received the same diet). These results indicate that heritable traits can be responsive to variations in the environment, and moreover, that estimates of heritability of learning and personality traits are strongly influenced by environments that modulate those traits.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Cauchoix2018,

title = {The repeatability of cognitive performance: a meta-analysis},

author = {M Cauchoix and P K Y Chow and J O van Horik and C M Atance and E J Barbeau and G Barragan-Jason and P Bize and A Boussard and S D Buechel and A Cabirol and L Cauchard and N Claidi{è}re and S Dalesman and J M Devaud and M Didic and B Doligez and J Fagot and C Fichtel and J {Henke-von der Malsburg} and E Hermer and L Huber and F Huebner and P M Kappeler and S Klein and J Langbein and E J G Langley and S E G Lea and M Lihoreau and H Lovlie and L D Matzel and S Nakagawa and C Nawroth and S Oesterwind and B Sauce and E A Smith and E Sorato and S Tebbich and L J Wallis and M A Whiteside and A Wilkinson and A S Chaine and J Morand-Ferron},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Sauce-et-al.-2018-The-impact-of-environmental-interventions-among-mouse-siblings-on-the-heritability-and-malleability-of-general-cog.pdf},

doi = {10.1098/rstb.2017.0281},

issn = {0962-8436},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-08-13},

journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences},

volume = {373},

number = {1756},

pages = {20170281},

publisher = {The Royal Society},

abstract = {Behavioural and cognitive processes play important roles in mediating an individual's interactions with its environment. Yet, while there is a vast literature on repeatable individual differences in behaviour, relatively little is known about the repeatability of cognitive performance. To further our understanding of the evolution of cognition, we gathered 44 studies on individual performance of 25 species across six animal classes and used meta-analysis to assess whether cognitive performance is repeatable. We compared repeatability ( R ) in performance (1) on the same task presented at different times (temporal repeatability), and (2) on different tasks that measured the same putative cognitive ability (contextual repeatability). We also addressed whether R estimates were influenced by seven extrinsic factors (moderators): type of cognitive performance measurement, type of cognitive task, delay between tests, origin of the subjects, experimental context, taxonomic class and publication status. We found support for both temporal and contextual repeatability of cognitive performance, with mean R estimates ranging between 0.15 and 0.28. Repeatability estimates were mostly influenced by the type of cognitive performance measures and publication status. Our findings highlight the widespread occurrence of consistent inter-individual variation in cognition across a range of taxa which, like behaviour, may be associated with fitness outcomes. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Causes and consequences of individual differences in cognitive abilities'.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2018b,

title = {The impact of environmental interventions among mouse siblings on the heritability and malleability of general cognitive ability},

author = {Bruno Sauce and Sophie Bendrath and Margalit Herzfeld and Dan Siegel and Conner Style and Sayeeda Rab and Jonathan Korabelnikov and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Sauce-et-al.-2018-The-impact-of-environmental-interventions-among-mouse-siblings-on-the-heritability-and-malleability-of-general-cog.pdf},

doi = {10.1098/rstb.2017.0289},

issn = {0962-8436},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-08-01},

journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences},

volume = {373},

number = {1756},

pages = {20170289},

publisher = {The Royal Society},

abstract = {General cognitive ability can be highly heritable in some species, but at the same time, is very malleable. This apparent paradox could potentially be explained by gene–environment interactions and correlations that remain hidden due to experimental limitations on human research and blind spots in animal research. Here, we shed light on this issue by combining the design of a sibling study with an environmental intervention administered to laboratory mice. The analysis included 58 litters of four full-sibling genetically heterogeneous CD-1 male mice, for a total of 232 mice. We separated the mice into two subsets of siblings: a control group (maintained in standard laboratory conditions) and an environmental-enrichment group (which had access to continuous physical exercise and daily exposure to novel environments). We found that general cognitive ability in mice has substantial heritability (24% for all mice) and is also malleable. The mice that experienced the enriched environment had a mean intelligence score that was 0.44 standard deviations higher than their siblings in the control group (equivalent to gains of 6.6 IQ points in humans). We also found that the estimate of heritability changed between groups (55% in the control group compared with non-significant 15% in the enrichment group), analogous to findings in humans across socio-economic status. Unexpectedly, no evidence of gene–environment interaction was detected, and so the change in heritability might be best explained by higher environmental variance in the enrichment group. Our findings, as well as the ‘sibling intervention procedure' for mice, may be valuable to future research on the heritability, mechanisms and evolution of cognition. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Causes and consequences of individual differences in cognitive abilities'.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Wass2018,

title = {Dopamine D1 receptor density in the mPFC responds to cognitive demands and receptor turnover contributes to general cognitive ability in mice},

author = {Christopher Wass and Bruno Sauce and Alessandro Pizzo and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Wass-et-al.-2018-Dopamine-D1-receptor-density-in-the-mPFC-responds-to-cognitive-demands-and-receptor-turnover-contributes-to-general.pdf},

doi = {10.1038/s41598-018-22668-0},

issn = {20452322},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-03-14},

journal = {Scientific Reports},

volume = {8},

number = {1},

pages = {4533},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {In both humans and mice, performance on tests of intelligence or general cognitive ability (GCA) is related to dopamine D1 receptor-mediated activity in the prelimbic cortex, and levels of DRD1 mRNA predict the GCA of mice. Here we assessed the turnover rate of D1 receptors as well as the expression level of the D1 chaperone protein (DRiP78) in the medial PPC (mPFC) of mice to determine whether rate of receptor turnover was associated with variations in the GCA of genetically heterogeneous mice. Following assessment of GCA (aggregate performance on four diverse learning tests) mice were administered an irreversible dopamine receptor antagonist (EEDQ), after which the density of new D1 receptors were quantified. GCA was positively correlated with both the rate of D1 receptor recovery and levels of DRiP78. Additionally, the density of D1 receptors was observed to increase within 60 min (or less) in response to intense demands on working memory, suggesting that a pool of immature receptors was available to accommodate high cognitive loads. These results provide evidence that innate general cognitive abilities are related to D1 receptor turnover rates in the prefrontal cortex, and that an intracellular pool of immature D1 receptors are available to accommodate cognitive demands.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2018,

title = {The paradox of intelligence: Heritability and malleability coexist in hidden gene-environment interplay},

author = {Bruno Sauce and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Sauce-Matzel-2018-The-paradox-of-intelligence-Heritability-and-malleability-coexist-in-hidden-gene-environment-interplay.pdf},

doi = {10.1037/bul0000131},

issn = {00332909},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-01-01},

journal = {Psychological Bulletin},

volume = {144},

number = {1},

pages = {26--47},

abstract = {Intelligence can have an extremely high heritability, but also be malleable; a paradox that has been the source of continuous controversy. Here we attempt to clarify the issue, and advance a frequently overlooked solution to the paradox: Intelligence is a trait with unusual properties that create a large reservoir of hidden gene–environment (GE) networks, allowing for the contribution of high genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in IQ. GE interplay is difficult to specify with current methods, and is underestimated in standard metrics of heritability (thus inflating estimates of “genetic” effects). We describe empirical evidence for GE interplay in intelligence, with malleability existing on top of heritability. The evidence covers cognitive gains consequent to adoption/immigration, changes in IQ's heritability across life span and socioeconomic status, gains in IQ over time consequent to societal development (the Flynn effect), the slowdown of age-related cognitive decline, and the gains in intelligence from early education. The GE solution has novel implications for enduring problems, including our inability to identify intelligence-related genes (also known as IQ's “missing heritability”), and the loss of initial benefits from early intervention programs (such as “Head Start”). The GE solution can be a powerful guide to future research, and may also aid policies to overcome barriers to the development of intelligence, particularly in impoverished and underprivileged populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2017,

title = {A broader phenotype of persistence emerges from individual differences in response to extinction},

author = {Bruno Sauce and Christopher Wass and Michael Lewis and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Sauce-et-al.-2017-A-broader-phenotype-of-persistence-emerges-from-individual-differences-in-response-to-extinction.pdf},

doi = {10.3758/s13423-017-1402-9},

issn = {15315320},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-11-01},

journal = {Psychonomic Bulletin and Review},

pages = {1--9},

publisher = {Psychonomic Bulletin & Review},

abstract = {The typical practice of averaging group perfor-mance during extinction gives the impression that responding declines gradually and homogeneously. However, previous studies of extinction in human infants have shown that some individuals persist in responding, whereas others abruptly cease responding. As predicted by theories of control, the infants who quickly resign typically display signs of sadness and despair when the expected reward is omitted. Using ge-netically diverse mice, here we observed a similar pattern of individual differences and the associated phenotypes. After learning to approach a food reward, upon extinction, some animals rapidly abandoned approach to the goal box, whereas other animals persisted in entering and searching the goal box. Interestingly, the persistent mice were slower to " give up " when confined to an inescapable pool of water (a test asserted to be indicative of susceptibility to depression) and exhibited a more extensive pattern of search for omitted rewards. Thus, extinction reveals a continuum in persistence, in which low values might reflect a susceptibility to the negative effects of stress and might predispose individuals to depression.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Matzel2017b,

title = {Individual differences: Case studies of rodent and primate intelligence},

author = {Louis D Matzel and Bruno Sauce},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Matzel-Sauce-2017-Individual-differences-Case-studies-of-rodent-and-primate-intelligence.pdf},

doi = {10.1037/xan0000152},

issn = {23298464},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-10-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition},

volume = {43},

number = {4},

pages = {325--340},

abstract = {Early in the 20th century, individual differences were a central focus of psychologists. By the end of that century, studies of individual differences had become far less common, and attention to these differences played little role in the development of contemporary theory. To illustrate the important role of individual differences, here we consider variations in intelligence as a compelling example. General intelligence (g) has now been demonstrated in at least 2 distinct genera: primates (including humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, and tamarins) and rodents (mice and rats). The expression of general intelligence varies widely across individuals within a species; these variations have tremendous functional consequence, and are attributable to interactions of genes and environment. Here we provide evidence for these assertions, describe the processes that contribute to variations in general intelligence, as well as the methods that underlie the analysis of individual differences. We conclude by describing why consideration of individual differences is critical to our understanding of learning, cognition, and behavior, and illustrate how attention to individual differences can contribute to more effective administration of therapeutic strategies for psychological disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Matzel2017c,

title = {Evolution, brain size, and variations in intelligence},

author = {Louis D Matzel and Bruno Sauce},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Matzel-Sauce-2017-Evolution-brain-size-and-variations-in-intelligence3.pdf},

doi = {10.1017/S0140525X16001722},

issn = {0140-525X},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-08-01},

journal = {Behavioral and Brain Sciences},

volume = {40},

number = {August},

pages = {e213},

abstract = {Across taxonomic subfamilies, variations in intelligence ( G ) are sometimes related to brain size. However, within species, brain size plays a smaller role in explaining variations in general intelligence ( g ), and the cause-and-effect relationship may be opposite to what appears intuitive. Instead, individual differences in intelligence may reflect variations in domain-general processes that are only superficially related to brain size.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Matzel2016,

title = {The tendency for social submission predicts superior cognitive performance in previously isolated male mice},

author = {Louis D Matzel and Stefan Kolata and Kenneth Light and Bruno Sauce},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Matzel-et-al.-2017-The-tendency-for-social-submission-predicts-superior-cognitive-performance-in-previously-isolated-male-mice.pdf},

doi = {10.1016/j.beproc.2016.07.011},

issn = {18728308},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-07-01},

journal = {Behavioural Processes},

volume = {134},

pages = {12--21},

publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},

abstract = {The imposition of subordination may negatively impact cognitive performance in common social settings (e.g., the classroom), and likewise, laboratory studies of animals indicate that the stress associated with social defeat can impair cognitive performance. It is less clear whether an animal's predisposition for social subordination (i.e., a tendency that is expressed prior to experience with social defeat) is related to its cognitive abilities (e.g., “general” intelligence). Using genetically diverse CD-1 male mice, here we determined that in the absence of adult experience with social hierarchies or social defeat, the predisposition for social subordination was associated with superior general cognitive ability (aggregate performance across a battery of five learning tasks). The tendency for social subordination was not dependent on the mice' body weight, but both general cognitive ability and the tendency for social subordination were directly related to high stress reactivity (i.e., free corticosterone elevations induced by mild stress). This pattern of results suggests that submissive behavior and sensitivity to stress may be associated with superior cognitive potential, and this can reflect a native predisposition that precedes exposure to social pressures. More broadly, these results raise the possibility that socially subordinate animals evolved compensatory strategies to facilitate their survival, and that absent the imposition of subordination, normally submissive individuals may be better prepared for cognitive/academic achievement.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2017b,

title = {A link between thrifty phenotype and maternal care across two generations of intercrossed mice},

author = {Bruno Sauce and Carolina P Goes and Isabela Forti and Bruno Gabriel O {Do Monte} and Isabela M Watanabe and Joao Cunha and Andrea C Peripato},

editor = {Cheryl S Rosenfeld},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Sauce-et-al.-2017-A-link-between-thrifty-phenotype-and-maternal-care-across-two-generations-of-intercrossed-mice.pdf},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0177954},

issn = {19326203},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-05-01},

journal = {PLoS ONE},

volume = {12},

number = {5},

pages = {e0177954},

abstract = {Maternal effects are causal influences from mother to offspring beyond genetic information, and have lifelong consequences for multiple traits. Previously, we reported that mice whose mothers did not nurse properly had low birth weight followed by rapid fat accumulation and disturbed development of some organs. That pattern resembles metabolic syndromes known collectively as the thrifty phenotype, which is believed to be an adaptation to a stressful environment which prepares offspring for reduced nutrient supply. The potential link between maternal care, stress reactivity, and the thrifty phenotype, however, has been poorly explored in the human and animal literature: only a couple of studies even mention (much less, test) these concepts under a cohesive framework. Here, we explored this link using mice of the parental inbred strains SM/J and LG/J-who differ dramatically in their maternal care-and the intercrossed generations F1 and F2. We measured individual differences in 15 phenotypes and used structural equation modeling to test our hypotheses. We found a remarkable relationship between thrifty phenotype and lower quality of maternal behaviors, including nest building, pup retrieval, grooming/licking, and nursing. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show, in any mammal, a clear connection between the natural variation in thrifty phenotype and maternal care. Both traits in the mother also had a substantial effect on survival rate in the F3 offspring. To our surprise, however, stress reactivity seemed to play no role in our models. Furthermore, the strain of maternal grandmother, but not of paternal grandmother, affected the variation of maternal care in F2 mice, and this effect was mediated by thrifty phenotype in F2. Since F1 animals were all genetically identical, this finding suggests that maternal effects pass down both maternal care and thrifty phenotype in these mice across generations via epigenetic transmission.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2015,

title = {Heterozygous L1-deficient mice express an autism-like phenotype},

author = {Bruno Sauce and Christopher Wass and Meera Netrakanti and Joshua Saylor and Melitta Schachner and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Sauce-et-al.-2015-Heterozygous-L1-deficient-mice-express-an-autism-like-phenotype.pdf},

doi = {10.1016/j.bbr.2015.05.040},

issn = {01664328},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-01-01},

journal = {Behavioural Brain Research},

volume = {292},

pages = {432--442},

publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},

abstract = {The L1CAM (L1) gene encodes a cell adhesion molecule that contributes to several important processes in the developing and adult nervous system, including neuronal migration, survival, and plasticity. In humans and mice, mutations in the X chromosome-linked gene L1 cause severe neurological defects in males. L1 heterozygous female mice with one functional copy of the L1 gene show complex morphological features that are different from L1 fully-deficient and wild-type littermate mice. However, almost no information is available on the behavior of L1 heterozygous mice and humans. Here, we investigated the behavior of heterozygous female mice in which the L1 gene is constitutively inactivated. These mice were compared to wild-type littermate females. Animals were assessed in five categories of behavioral tests: five tests for anxiety/stress/exploration, four tests for motor abilities, two tests for spatial learning, three tests for social behavior, and three tests for repetitive behavior. We found that L1 heterozygous mice express an autism-like phenotype, comprised of reduced social behaviors and excessive self-grooming (a repetitive behavior also typical in animal models of autism). L1 heterozygous mice also exhibited an increase in sensitivity to light, assessed by a reluctance to enter the lighted areas of novel environments. However, levels of anxiety, stress, motor abilities, and spatial learning in L1 heterozygous mice were similar to those of wild-type mice. These observations raise the possibility that using molecules known to trigger L1 functions may become valuable in the treatment of autism in humans.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2014,

title = {The external–internal loop of interference: Two types of attention and their influence on the learning abilities of mice},

author = {Bruno Sauce and Christopher Wass and Andrew Smith and Stephanie Kwan and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Sauce-et-al.-2014-The-external–internal-loop-of-interference-Two-types-of-attention-and-their-influence-on-the-learning-abilities-of.pdf},

doi = {10.1016/j.nlm.2014.10.005},

issn = {10747427},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-01-01},

journal = {Neurobiology of Learning and Memory},

volume = {116},

pages = {181--192},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Attention is a component of the working memory system, and is responsible for protecting task-relevant information from interference. Cognitive performance (particularly outside of the laboratory) is often plagued by interference, and the source of this interference, either external or internal, might influence the expression of individual differences in attentional ability. By definition, external attention (also described as "selective attention") protects working memory against sensorial distractors of all kinds, while internal attention (also called "inhibition") protects working memory against emotional impulses, irrelevant information from memory, and automatically-generated responses. At present, it is unclear if these two types of attention are expressed independently in non-human animals, and how they might differentially impact performance on other cognitive processes, such as learning. By using a diverse battery of four attention tests (with varying levels of internal and external sources of interference), here we aimed both to explore this issue, and to obtain a robust and general (less task-specific) measure of attention in mice. Exploratory factor analyses revealed two factors (external and internal attention) that in total, accounted for 73% of the variance in attentional performance. Confirmatory factor analyses found an excellent fit with the data of the model of attention that assumed an external and internal distinction (with a resulting correlation of 0.43). In contrast, a model of attention that assumed one source of variance (i.e., "general attention") exhibited a poor fit with the data. Regarding the relationship between attention and learning, higher resistance against external sources of interference promoted better new learning, but tended to impair performance when cognitive flexibility was required, such as during the reversal of a previously instantiated response. The present results suggest that there can be (at least) two types of attention that contribute to the common variance in attentional performance in mice, and that external and internal attentions might have opposing influences on the rate at which animals learn.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Matzel2013,

title = {The Architecture of Intelligence: Converging Evidence From Studies of Humans and Animals},

author = {Louis D Matzel and Bruno Sauce and Christopher Wass},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Matzel-Sauce-Wass-2013-The-Architecture-of-Intelligence-Converging-Evidence-From-Studies-of-Humans-and-Animals.pdf},

doi = {10.1177/0963721413491764},

issn = {0963-7214},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-09-01},

journal = {Current Directions in Psychological Science},

volume = {22},

number = {5},

pages = {342--348},

abstract = {A person's performance across multiple cognitive tests tends to covary. This ubiquitous observation suggests that various cognitive domains are regulated in common, and this covariance underlies the interpretation of many quantitative tests of “intelligence.” We find that, as in humans, differences in intelligence exist across genetically heterogeneous mice. Specifically, we have observed a covariance in the performance of mice across diverse tests of learning, reasoning, and attention. As in humans, the processing efficacy of working memory is both correlated with animals' general cognitive abilities and may in some instances serve to regulate behaviors indicative of intelligence. Beyond its axiomatic significance in demonstrating the evolutionary conservation of a cognitive trait, studies of mice may provide unique opportunities to assess the molecular (e.g., brain-specific RNA expression; transgenics) and neuroanatomic substrates for intelligence. One such approach is briefly described here. Using this approach, we have determined that the signaling efficacy of the dopamine D1 receptor in the prefrontal cortex is one potential link between performance on both working-memory tasks and tests of intelligence. In combination, studies of both humans and nonhuman animals provide converging lines of evidence that might evade either approach in isolation.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Smith2013,

title = {Facilitation of the cognitive enhancing effects of working memory training through conjoint voluntary aerobic exercise.},

author = {Andrew M Smith and Kevin M Spiegler and Bruno Sauce and Christopher D Wass and Tudor Sturzoiu and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Smith-et-al.-2013-Facilitation-of-the-cognitive-enhancing-effects-of-working-memory-training-through-conjoint-voluntary-aerobic-exer.pdf},

doi = {10.1016/j.bbr.2013.09.012},

issn = {1872-7549},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-09-01},

journal = {Behavioural brain research},

volume = {256},

pages = {626--635},

publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},

abstract = {Increases in performance on tests of attention and learning are often observed shortly after a period of aerobic exercise, and evidence suggests that humans who engage in regular exercise are partially protected from age-related cognitive decline. However, the cognitive benefits of exercise are typically short-lived, limiting the practical application of these observations. We explored whether physical exercise would induce lasting changes in general cognitive ability if that exercise was combined with working memory training, which is purported to broadly impact on cognitive performance. Mice received either exercise (6 weeks of voluntary running wheel access), working memory training, both treatments, or various control treatments. Near the completion of this period of exercise, working memory training (in a dual radial-arm maze) was initiated (alternating with days of exercise), and was continued for several weeks. Upon completion of these treatments, animals were assessed (2-4 weeks later) for performance on four diverse learning tasks, and the aggregate performance of individual animals across all four learning tasks was estimated. Working memory training alone promoted small increases in general cognitive performance, although any beneficial effects of exercise alone had dissipated by the time of learning assessments. However, the two treatments in combination more than doubled the improvement in general cognitive performance supported by working memory training alone. Unlike the transient effects that acute aerobic exercise can have on isolated learning tasks, these results indicate that an acute period of exercise combined with working memory training can have synergistic and lasting impact on general cognitive performance.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2013,

title = {The causes of variation in learning and behavior: why individual differences matter},

author = {Bruno Sauce and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Sauce-Matzel-2013-The-causes-of-variation-in-learning-and-behavior-why-individual-differences-matter.pdf},

doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00395},

issn = {1664-1078},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-01-01},

journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},

volume = {4},

number = {July},

pages = {395},

abstract = {In a seminal paper written five decades ago, Cronbach discussed the two highly distinct approaches to scientific psychology: experimental and correlational. Today, although these two approaches are fruitfully implemented and embraced across some fields of psychology, this synergy is largely absent from other areas, such as in the study of learning and behavior. Both Tolman and Hull, in a rare case of agreement, stated that the correlational approach held little promise for the understanding of behavior. Interestingly, this dismissal of the study of individual differences was absent in the biologically oriented branches of behavior analysis, namely, behavioral genetics and ethology. Here we propose that the distinction between “causation” and “causes of variation” (with its origins in the field of genetics) reveals the potential value of the correlational approach in understanding the full complexity of learning and behavior. Although the experimental approach can illuminate the causal variables that modulate learning, the analysis of individual differences can elucidate how much and in which way variables interact to support variations in learning in complex natural environments. For example, understanding that a past experience with a stimulus influences its “associability” provides little insight into how individual predispositions interact to modulate this influence on associability. In this “new” light, we discuss examples from studies of individual differences in animals' performance in the Morris water maze and from our own work on individual differences in general intelligence in mice. These studies illustrate that, opposed to what Underwood famously suggested, studies of individual differences can do much more to psychology than merely providing preliminary indications of cause-effect relationships.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Wass2013,

title = {Dopamine D1 sensitivity in the prefrontal cortex predicts general cognitive abilities and is modulated by working memory training.},

author = {Christopher Wass and Alessandro Pizzo and Bruno Sauce and Yushi Kawasumi and Tudor Sturzoiu and Fred Ree and Tim Otto and Louis D Matzel},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Wass-et-al.-2013-Dopamine-D1-sensitivity-in-the-prefrontal-cortex-predicts-general-cognitive-abilities-and-is-modulated-by-working-m.pdf},

doi = {10.1101/lm.031971.113},

issn = {1549-5485},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-01-01},

journal = {Learning & memory (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.)},

volume = {20},

number = {11},

pages = {617--627},

abstract = {A common source of variance (i.e., "general intelligence") underlies an individual's performance across diverse tests of cognitive ability, and evidence indicates that the processing efficacy of working memory may serve as one such source of common variance. One component of working memory, selective attention, has been reported to co-vary with general intelligence, and dopamine D1 signaling in prefrontal cortex can modulate attentional abilities. Based on their aggregate performance across five diverse tests of learning, here we characterized the general cognitive ability (GCA) of CD-1 outbred mice. In response to a D1 agonist (SKF82958, 1 mg/kg), we then assessed the relationship between GCA and activation of D1 receptor (D1R)-containing neurons in the prelimbic region of the medial prefrontal cortex, the agranular insular cortex, and the dorsomedial striatum. Increased activation of D1R-containing neurons in the prelimbic cortex (but not the agranular insular cortex or dorsomedial striatum) was observed in animals of high GCA relative to those of low GCA (quantified by c-Fos activation in response to the D1 agonist). However, a Western blot analysis revealed no differences in the density of D1Rs in the prelimbic cortex between animals of high and low GCA. Last, it was observed that working memory training promoted an increase in animals' GCA and enhanced D1R-mediated neuronal activation in the prelimbic cortex. These results suggest that the sensitivity (but not density) of D1Rs in the prelimbic cortex may both regulate GCA and be a target for working memory training.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Goes2012,

title = {Milk ejection in mice LG/J x SM/J},

author = {Carolina P Góes and Bruno Sauce and Andrea C Peripato},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Góes-Sauce-Peripato-2012-Milk-ejection-in-mice-LGJ-x-SMJ.pdf},

doi = {10.1007/s00335-012-9431-1},

issn = {0938-8990},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-12-01},

journal = {Mammalian Genome},

volume = {23},

number = {11-12},

pages = {770--779},

abstract = {In mammals, milk provision is crucial to offspring survival and growth from birth to weaning. Milk deficiency early in life may cause death or changes in the progeny metabolism that later may lead to obesity and metabolic disorders. This study investigates milk ejection (ME) the first day after birth (D1) in F(2) females from the intercross of LG/J and SM/J inbred mice strains. The absence of milk in F(3) pups' stomach at D1 is directly associated with their survival (p textless 0.001) and growth pattern (p textless 0.001) in the early stages of life. Furthermore, late growth pattern is also affected by this lack of nutrients at D1 because pups that survive this absence, mostly males, are heavier at weaning (p textless 0.001) which, after necropsy, is shown to be due to significant higher total fat deposition (p textless 0.01). We performed QTL analysis for ME at D1 in these F(2) females. Maternal performance of ME revealed a complex genetic architecture which even though it contains only a single QTL (accounting for 8 % of the variation in ME), it is totally context-dependent on the genetic background. We discovered many regions involved in epistatic interactions that together with the single QTL explain 19 % of the genetic variation for this trait. Milk ejection is an important component of maternal care, and understanding the mechanisms modulating its variation, along with other maternal features, may help to disentangle the complexity that is the mother/offspring relationship.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Chiavegatto2012,

title = {Hypothalamic expression of Peg3 gene is associated with maternal care differences between SM/J and LG/J mouse strains.},

author = {Silvana Chiavegatto and Bruno Sauce and Guilherme Ambar and James M Cheverud and Andrea C Peripato},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Chiavegatto-et-al.-2012-Hypothalamic-expression-of-Peg3-gene-is-associated-with-maternal-care-differences-between-SMJ-and-LGJ-mouse.pdf},

doi = {10.1002/brb3.58},

issn = {2162-3279},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-07-01},

journal = {Brain and behavior},

volume = {2},

number = {4},

pages = {365--76},

abstract = {Maternal care is essential in mammals, and variations in the environment provided by mothers may directly influence the viability of newborns and emotional behavior later in life. A previous study investigated genetic variations associated with maternal care in an intercross of LG/J and SM/J inbred mouse strains and identified two single-locus QTLs (quantitative trait loci). Here, we selected three candidate genes located within these QTLs intervals; Oxt on chromosome 2, and FosB and Peg3 on chromosome 7 and tested their association with maternal care. LG/J females showed impaired postpartum nest building and pup retrieval, a one-day delay in milk ejection, reduced exploratory activity, and higher anxiety-like behavior when compared to SM/J females. The nucleotide sequences of Oxt and FosB were similar between strains, as were their hypothalamic expression levels. Conversely, Peg3 nucleotide sequences showed four nonsynonymous replacement substitutions on LG/J dams, T11062G, G13744A, A13808G, and G13813A, and a 30 base pair (10 aa) in tandem repeat in the coding region with three copies in SM/J and five copies in LG/J. Maternal care impaired LG/J mothers express 37% lower Peg3 mRNA levels in the hypothalamus on the second postpartum day. We also found an association of the Peg3 repeat-variant and poor maternal care in F(2) heterozygote females derived from a LG/J × SM/J intercross. These results may suggest that the maternally imprinted Peg3 gene is responsible for the single-locus QTL on chromosome 7 that has been shown to influence maternal care in these strains. Furthermore, these data provide additional support for an epigenetic regulation of maternal behavior.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sauce2012,

title = {Genetic Architecture of Nest Building in Mice LG/J × SM/J},

author = {Bruno Sauce and Reinaldo Alves de Brito and Andrea C Peripato},

url = {https://brunosauce.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Sauce-de-Brito-Peripato-2012-Genetic-Architecture-of-Nest-Building-in-Mice-LGJ-×-SMJ.pdf},

doi = {10.3389/fgene.2012.00090},

issn = {1664-8021},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

journal = {Frontiers in Genetics},

volume = {3},

number = {May},

pages = {90},

abstract = {Maternal care is critical to offspring growth and survival, which is greatly improved by building an effective nest. Some suggest that genetic variation and underlying genetic effects differ between fitness-related traits and other phenotypes. We investigated the genetic architecture of a fitness-related trait, nest building, in F(2) female mice intercrossed from inbred strains SM/J and LG/J using a QTL analysis for six related nest phenotypes (Presence and Structure pre- and postpartum, prepartum Material Used and postpartum Temperature). We found 15 direct-effect QTLs explaining from 4 to 13% of the phenotypic variation in nest building, mostly with non-additive effect. Epistatic analyses revealed 71 significant epistatic interactions which together explain from 28.4 to 75.5% of the variation, indicating an important role for epistasis in the adaptive process of nest building behavior in mice. Our results suggest a genetic architecture with small direct effects and a larger number of epistatic interactions as expected for fitness-related phenotypes.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}